Key Personality: Adolf Hitler

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Adolf Hitler

Hitler is a Key Personality for:
Germany in the Inter-War Years
Hitler's Foreign Policy & the Causes of World War II.
World War II

• Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. As a young man he wanted to become an artist, but he was rejected from the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. He was a strong supporter of German nationalism and developed a hatred of Jews early on. He joined the German Army during World War One.

• After the war, he joined the German Workers' Party. He became its leader and renamed it the German National Socialist Party, otherwise known as the Nazi Party. In 1924, the Nazis attempted to grab power by staging a putsch (coup) in Munich. They failed and Hitler was arrested and imprisoned. While in jail, he wrote his ideas about Germany, propaganda and the Jews down in a book called Mein Kampf (My Struggle).Not long after he was released from jail, the Great Depression crippled the German Weimar Republic. Unemployment rose to 6 million.

• Hitler and the Nazis became more popular and they were elected as the largest party in the Reichstag in 1933. President Hindenburg invited Hitler to become Chancellor of Germany. Hitler set about creating a totalitarian dictatorship: the Enabling Act allowed him to rule by decree and he used propaganda to create a cult of personality around himself. When Hindenburg died Hitler combined the offices to President and Chancellor to create the title of Fuhrer (leader). He put down opposition to his rule during the Night of the Long Knives, terrorised Jewish citizens with the Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht and attempted to combine the German Protestant churches into a unified Reichskirche.

• Hitler's foreign policy was very aggressive. He won power by promising to destroy the Treaty of Versailles, and he broke it by rearming the German army, remilitarising the Rhineland, and joining with Austria (Anschluss). In 1938, Britain and France allowed him to annex the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Within a year, he had invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland. This caused the Second World War.

• During the first years of the war, Hitler enjoyed many successes: he invaded and conquered Poland, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and France, as well as beginning to invade Russia. After 1942, however, he began to suffer defeats as the Allies defeated German forces in North Africa, Stalingrad and eventually from France. Hitler retreated to a bunker in Berlin, where he stayed until the Soviet Red Army reached the city. Rather than be captured, Hitler committed suicide in the bunker.

In short...

• Background:
• born in Austria, wanted to be an artist, hatred of Jews, served German army in WWI.

• Rise to power:
• Joined the German Workers' Party, became its leader, renamed it the National Socialist (Nazi) Party.
• Munich Putsch 1924 - failed, Hitler imprisoned. Wrote Mein Kampf.
• Great Depression affects the Weimar Republic, Nazis become more popular.

• Totalitarian Dictatorship:
• 1933 election, Hitler becomes Chancellor.
• Enabling Act, cult of personality, propaganda, Fuhrer.
• Night of the Long Knives: Rohm killed,opposition put down.
• Treatment of the Jews: Nuremberg Laws, Kristallnacht.
• Reichskirche - unified German Protestant church.

• Foreign Policy:
• Breaking the Versailles Treaty: rearmament, remilitarised the Rhineland.
• Anschluss with Austria.
• Munich Conference: Annexed the Sudetenland.
• Invaded Czechoslovakia and Poland, started World War II.

• World War II:
• Initial successes: most of Europe under Nazi control by 1941.
• Allies push back in 1942, Nazis defeated in several areas.
• Soviet army invades Berlin, Hitler commits suicide.

American recruitment poster featuring Hitler.

Key Personality: Josef Goebbels

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Josef Goebbels

Goebbels is a Key Personality for:
Germany in the Inter-War Years

• Josef Goebbels was educated in history, literature and phisilophy at various German universities. He was rejected from the German army in World War I because of his crippled foot. He joined the Nazi Party in 1922. He admired Adolf Hitler, the leader of that party. He was appointed district leader of the Nazi Party in Berlin. Later, Hitler made him Propaganda Leader of the Party in 1929.

• Goebbels has already run his own newspaper, Der Angriff (The Attack) to spread Nazi ideas and beliefs. As propaganda leader, he organised the Nazis' election campaigns in the early 1930s and helped bring them to power.

• In power, Hitler made Goebbels the Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Goebbels had become very experienced in propaganda techniques, he studied a variety of sources including American advertising methods. As Minister, he brought German radio, cinema, theatre, sports and the press all under Nazi control. He also directed propaganda against the Jews.

• During the Second World War, Goebbels attempted to use propaganda to boost German morale. As the Russians closed in on Berlin, Goebbels retreated with Hitler to the Fuhrer's bunker, along with his wife and children. They all committed suicide after Hitler had done the same.

In short...

• Background:
• educated in history, literature and philosohy.
• rejected from the German army.
• joined the Nazi Party and became an admirer of Hitler. Propaganda Leader of the party in 1929.

• Minister for Propaganda:
• Der Angriff, Election campaigns.
• Radio, cinema, theatre, sports, the press all under Nazi control.
• Anti-Semitic propaganda.

• World War II:
• Propaganda to boost morale.
• Retreated to bunker with Hitler and family, committed suicide.

The Goebbels family, with Hitler.

Key Personality: Leni Riefenstahl

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Leni Riefenstahl, directing a cameraman.

Riefenstahl is a Key Personality for:
Germany in the Inter-War Years

• Leni Riefenstahl began her career as a ballet dancer, until a knee injury forced her to quit. She then became a film actress during the 1920s. In 1931, she set up her own film company. She wrote, directed, produced and starred in a film called The Blue Light, which won several awards. 

• In 1934, Hitler asked her to film that year's Nuremberg Rally. She filmed parades, speeches and presentations by the army and the Hitler Youth. She directed and produced the footage as a documentary called Triumph of the Will. She used a variety of filming techniques, such as panoramic views and low-angle shots of Hitler to create what is considered to be a propaganda masterpiece. The film won many prizes around the world.

• She also produced Olympia, a documentary on the 1936 Olympic Games which were held in Berlin. Again, she used filming techniques to highlight the Nazi organisation of the event and the role of Hitler.

• After the Second World War, she was cleared of being a Nazi, as she said she did not understand Hitler's plans and only made films because she was asked to. Nevertheless, Triumph of the Will destroyed her career because of its association with the Nazis. Riefenstahl began a new career as a still photographer. She spent time in Africa photographing the Sudanese Nuba tribe, and she made her first documentary in decades in 2002, about underwater life. She died in 2003, aged 101.

An example of Riefenstahl's techniques.
Hitler is filmed from a low angle to
make him appear larger than life.

In short...

• Background:
• Originally a ballet dancer, became a film actress and set up her own film company.
• The Blue Light
  

• Working for Hitler:
• Triumph of the Will: 1934 Nuremberg Rally, filming techniques as propaganda.
• Olympia: 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.

• Life after Hitler:
• Cleared of being a Nazi, but her career was destroyed because of Nazi associations.
• Became a still photographer (Sudan) and made a documentary about underwater life.

Riefenstahl in Sudan in later years.

Dictatorship and Democracy: Case Study 2: The Nuremberg Rallies

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe >  Case Study 2: The Nuremberg Rallies

Crowds at the 1936 Nuremberg Rally.

Some of the most famous scenes of Hitler's entire time in power are in the footage of his speeches to rallies. Thousands of people would attend to partake in a celebration of Germany, the Nazi Party and Hitler himself. The rallies were filmed and used as propaganda for other countries, to show how great and glorious Germany had become again after her defeat in World War I. Leni Riefenstahl famously captured the 1934 Nuremberg Rally in her film "Triumph of the Will", which is considered to be a masterpiece of Nazi propaganda.

• The First Rallies
• Explain the purpose of the rallies, the role of Albert Speer.

• Locations
• Zeppelin Field, March Field, Luitpold Arena, Congress Hall.
• Architecture, construction and transport.

• Organisation of the Rallies
• Themes, Opera, Party Roll of Honour, Presentations, Hitler's speech.

• Why Nuremberg?
• Medieval city, symbol of Nazism, Allied victory parade, Nuremberg Trials.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2008: What contribution did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?

2007: What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933 - 1939?


Ordinary Level

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What took place at the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany in the 1930s? (30) 

2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the importance for Nazi Germany of the Nuremberg Rallies? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies and/or Leni Riefenstahl contribute to the Nazi regime? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help to create propaganda for Hitler and the Nazi regime? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl use the German mass media to promote the Nazi movement? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help bring support to the Nazi regime in Germany? (40) 

Hitler saluting at a rally.

Pictures from the 1936 Nuremberg Rally
These pictures were originally featured as propaganda in a Nazi record book of the rally.

Footage of the 1938 Nuremberg Rally
The US Holocaust Memorial Museum has an American newsreel about the 1938 rally.

British Pathé: Nuremberg Rallies
The British Pathé collection of newsreels and video clips on the rallies.

Nuremberg Museum: Nazi Party Rally Grounds
The Nuremberg Museum site has a few features on the grounds and buildings used for the rallies. Have a look. 

Overview of the 1934 Nuremberg Rally
This was the rally Riefenstahl filmed for "Triumph of the Will".

Germany in the Inter-War Years

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Germany in the Inter-War Years

Nazi Party members salute Hitler at a rally. Photo © Life

You learned about Hitler and Nazi Germany in Third Year (just as you did Mussolini), and now you'll revisit Hitler's Germany for a closer look. How exactly did he achieve power? What helped him? What hindered him? What did his policies mean for Germany, and for the world?

You will look more closely at the laws he passed and the actions he took when in power. His foreign policy will be examined in a later section.

This section contains the second Case Study for this topic, the Nuremberg Rallies, footage of which is usually shown in a TV show or documentary that wants to mention Hitler. There are also three key personalities: Propaganda minister Josef Goebbels, film-maker Leni Riefenstahl, and of course Hitler himself.

Continue to Britain in the Inter-War Years

• Hitler's Rise to Power
• The Weimar Republic, Dawes Plan, Inflation and Great Depression, Mein Kampf and Propaganda.

• Establishing a Dictatorship:
• 1933 election, Enabling Act, Night of the Long Knives, Goebbels and Propaganda, Education and the Hitler Youth.

• The Economy:
• Unemployment, Conscription, Autarky, Autobahns, Volkswagen, "Beauty and Strength through Joy".

• Church-State Relations
• Reichskirche (Protestant), Concordat (Catholic), Broken promises, Propaganda, "Mit Brennender Sorge (With Burning Rage)".

• Hitler and the Jews:
• "Herrenvolk", Anti-Semitic Propaganda, Nuremberg Laws, Kristallnacht, the Final Solution.

Key Terms:  
Inflation, Depression, Totalitarianism, Propaganda, Cult of Personality, Reichskirche, Herrenvolk, Anti-Semitism, Holocaust.
(click here)

Key Personalities: 
Adolf Hitler
Josef Goebbels 
Leni Riefenstahl

Case Study:
The Nuremberg Rallies

"Children, what do you know of the Fuhrer?"
Hitler Youth propaganda poster.

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2015: What were the social and economic problems facing Germany, 1920-1939, and how were they dealt with?

2012: How did Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust affect Europe, 1920 - 1945?

2011: What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933 - 1939?

2010: How successfully did German governments deal with the social and economic problems of the
             period 1920 - 1945?
2010: What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2008: Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war years, Britain or
              Germany? Argue your case, referring to both countries.
2008: What contribution did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?

2007: What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933 - 1939?

2006: During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of
          fascist regimes?


Ordinary Level:
2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust. (30)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Church-State relations in Germany under Hitler. (30)

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What took place at the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany in the 1930s? (30) 

2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the importance for Nazi Germany of the Nuremberg Rallies? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies and/or Leni Riefenstahl contribute to the Nazi regime? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help to create propaganda for Hitler and the Nazi regime? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl use the German mass media to promote the Nazi movement? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help bring support to the Nazi regime in Germany? (40) 

Hitler admires a model of the new Volkswagen (People's Car)

Links go here
Links go here

Key Personality: Benito Mussolini

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Benito Mussolini

Mussolini is a Key Personality for:
Italy in the Inter-War Years.

• Benito Mussolini was born in Italy in 1883. He originally joined the Socialist Party but was expelled when he campaigned for Italy to join the First World War. He turned to nationalism and founded the fascio di combattimento (combat groups) after the war. They opposed the growth of socialism in Italy and violently attacked socialists.

• He transformed the combat groups into a political party - the Fascist Party. He led the March on Rome to demand a role in the government for the fascists. King Victor Emmanuel did not support the existing government so he appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister.

• Mussolini then set about creating a totalitarian dictatorship: he passed the Acerbo Law which stated that the political party with the most votes in the next election would automatically get two-thirds of the Parliament seats, ensuring he would be in power. He also used propaganda through radio and cinema. The murder of Socialist leader Giacomo Matteoti by Fascists led to the Socialist Party leaving Parliament in protest. Mussolini took full control and gained the ability to rule by decree. He created a cult of personality around himself and became il Duce (the leader).

• He wanted more Fascist control of the economy so he established the Corporate State to achieve this. He followed a policy of self-sufficiency and organised a series of "Battles" e.g. the Battle for Grai to increase grain production. He drained the Pontine Marshes near Rome in order to reclaim the land, and he built new autostrada (motorways). These actions reduced unemployment.

• He signed the Lateran Treaty with the Pope, granting the Pope the Vatican state in return for his acknowledgement of the Italian state. Italy paid compensation for taking Rome from the Pope in 1870 and Catholicism was recognised as the sole religion of the state.

• Mussolini's foreign policy was based on expansion. He regained Fiume from Yugoslavia and held on to Corfu until Greece agreed to pay 50 million lira compensation for the deaths of Italian soldiers. Mussolini later signed the Locarno Pact and the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which outlawed war. Despite this he continued his policy of expansion and in the 1930s he invaded Abyssinia and aided Franco in the Spanish Civil War.

• Initially, he was opposed to granting Austria to Hitler, but when Hitler supported his invasion of Abyssinia and also helped Franco, Mussolini became allies with him, signing the Rome-Berlin Axis and later the Pact of Steel, which committed Italy to joining the war with Germany.

• When World War II began, Mussolini kept Italy out at first due to the weakness of the army. He joined after Hitler had conquered France. The Italian Army performed very badly. It was defeated in North Africa, and Allied forces pushed up from there through southern Italy. King Victor Emmanuel deposed Mussolini. Hitler rescued him from capture and hid him in northern Italy, where he was captured again and shot dead by Italian partisans (guerilla fighters).

In short...

• Background:
• originally joined the Socialists, expelled and turned to nationalism.
• founded fascio di combattimento.

• Rise to power:
• Created the Fascist Party, March on Rome, made Prime Minister.

• Totalitarian Dictatorship:
• Acerbo Law
• Propaganda and cult of personality (il Duce)
• Matteoti crisis
• Rule by decree

• The Economy:
• Corporate State (Battles)
• Reclaimed the Pontine marshes.
• Autostrada

• Church-State relations:
• Lateran Treaty

• Foreign Policy and World War II
• Initial successes: Fiume, Corfu
• Locarno Pact, Kellogg-Briand Pact
• Invasion of Abyssinia, Spanish Civil War
• Relationship with Hitler (Rome-Berlin Axis, Pact of Steel)
• Italy in WWII (poor army, Mussolini deposed, captured and killed).

Allied propaganda poster featuring Mussolini.
"Dunce says, the Allies make me so mad that I am going right out in the back yard and eat worms."
What is the message of this poster?

Italy in the Inter-War Years

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Italy in the Inter-War Years

The headquarters of the Italian Fascist Party in Rome during the 1930s.
Mussolini's face adorns a wall full of the word "Si" (Yes).

Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler,
two fascist dictators.

In Third Year, you learned how fascist regimes took control in Italy and in Germany. You learned about Benito Mussolini and his actions: how he established a dictatorship, how he tried to create a corporate state, and how his foreign policy affected Europe and the world.

In this section, you will revisit Mussolini (and later Hitler) and examine his actions in more detail. Your previous study of him will give you an advantage when learning this section, and you'll learn some new information about aspects you haven't looked at before, such as Mussolini's dealings with the Catholic Church.

In Leaving Cert, you may be asked to compare the features of a fascist dictatorship with the communist dictatorship established by Stalin. Both are totalitarian, but as you re-examine Mussolini you may find some similarities and differences you had not noticed before. You will also compare the emergence of dictatorships across much of Europe to the perseverance of democracy in places such as Britain and France.

Continue to Germany in the Inter-War Years

• Why dictatorships?  
• Reasons for Mussolini's rise to power.

• Establishing a dictatorship: 
• March on Rome, Acerbo Law, Matteoti, OVRA, propaganda.

• Church-State Relations:  
• Improving relations with the Catholic Church, the Lateran Treaty (1929), clashes about the Jews.

• The Economy: 
• Corporate State, self-sufficiency, autostrada, "Battles".

• Foreign Policy:
• "Italia Irredenta" (expansion), Locarno Pact, relationship with Hitler, Invasion of Abyssinia, Rome-Berlin Axis, Italy in the Second World War.

Key Terms:  
Dictatorship, Fascism, Totalitarianism, Propaganda, Cult of Personality, Inflation, Depression.
(click here)

Key Personalities: 
Benito Mussolini

Italian fascist propaganda poster. It reads "We have new and old scores to settle: we will settle them."
The SPQR stands for a Latin phrase from Ancient Rome, meaning "the Senate and People of Rome".
This was the signature of the ancient Roman government. It can be found on ancient Roman coins.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2015: How did Mussolini and/or Stalin use propaganda and terror to remain in power?

2013: What were the characteristics of fascist regimes in Europe in the inter-war period?

2011: How effective were the internal and external policies of Benito Mussolini?

2010, 2014: What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2006: During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of fascist regimes?


Ordinary Level:
2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on church-state relations in Italy under Mussolini. (30)

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C
2010, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What developments took place in church-state relations in Italy under Mussolini? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Would you agree that the leadership of Benito Mussolini was a disaster for Italy? Argue your case. (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did fascism develop in Italy under Benito Mussolini? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What were the successes and failures in the career of Benito Mussolini?(40)

An Italian fascist propaganda poster. It says "Defend!" It shows Italy as a child being threatened by three hands: the Jews, the Soviet Union, and the Freemasons (a secret fraternal society).
Fascism was opposed to all three groups.
Do you think this kind of propaganda is effective?

Links go here
Links go here

Leaving Cert History: Modern Europe and the Wider World

Main Page: Leaving Cert History

You must study two topics each from Modern Ireland and from Modern Europe and the Wider World. One of the topics will be a prescribed topic for the Document Question in the Leaving Cert exam.

This section is still under development. I am adding the most popular topics first, then I will add the others.

Click on the buttons below to find the topic you want. 

So far, only Dictatorship and Democracy and The United States and the World are online.

Leaving Cert History: Modern Ireland

Main Page: Leaving Cert History

You must study two topics each from Modern Ireland and from Modern Europe and the Wider World. One of the topics will be a prescribed topic for the Document Question in the Leaving Cert exam.

This section is still under development. I am adding the most popular topics first, then I will add the others.

Click on the buttons below to find the topic you want.

I have not begun work on the Irish topics yet. I will soon work on Movements for Political and Social Reform, 1870 - 1914.

 

Feedback

Whether you're a student, a teacher or a parent, you can leave any comments or questions you have on this page.

This comment page is a trial run. This will be the only way to communicate with me. I will not be setting up an email address for the site, nor will I provide one if asked. Every interaction on this site will be public. You are free to comment anonymously, and even though I am able to look at statistics telling me how many people are visiting the site, I do not have the ability to identify any visitor.

There are three simple rules for commenting:

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Dictatorship and Democracy: Case Study 1: Stalin's Show Trials

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe >  Case Study 1: Stalin's Show Trials

Andrey Vyshinsky, prosecutor at each
of the show trials.

One of the most terrifying ways through which Stalin established a totalitarian dictatorship in the Soviet Union was through his purges and his show trials. Anyone who Stalin believed was opposed to him would face one or the other. Millions of people would die from the purges, from ordinary people to leading members of the Communist Party.

The so-called Great Purge began in 1936 with the arrest of Kamenev and Zinoviev, Stalin's former allies in his power struggle against Trotsky. They, and others, were put on show trials in Moscow. For this case study, you'll take a close look at Stalin's show trials, so you can assess the impact that they had on Stalin's Russia and how Stalin used them for his own gain.

• The First Show Trial, 1936
• Accused: Kamenev, Zinoviev, 14 others.
• Charges: murdering Kirov, plotting to murder Stalin, working with Trotskyites.
• Trial: Forced confessions, Vyshinsky prosecuting, Learning off lines, Confessions as evidence, K. and Z. plead guilty, executed.

• The Second Show Trial, 1937
• Accused: Radek, Pyatakov, 15 others.
• Charges: conspiring with Germany and Japan against the USSR, sabotage of the Five Year Plans.
• Trial: Vyshinsky prosecuting, They confess and are found guilty. 13 executed, 4 sent to labour camps. 

• The Third Show Trial, 1938
• Accused: Bukharin, Rykov, Yagoda, 18 others.
• Charges: membership of the "Anti-Soviet Block of Rightists and Trotskyites", economic sabotage, plotting to murder Stalin.
• Trial: Vyshinsky prosecuting, All plead guilty and are executed. Bukharin pleads guilty to save wife and children.

• Reaction: Many inside and outside the Soviet Union believed the trials were legal. Soviet citizens believed there was a conspiracy against the Soviet Union.

• Stalin's Role: Directed by Stalin in secret, Show trials used as propaganda, denounced by Khrushchev after Stalin's death.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2012: What were the main characteristics of Stalin's rule in Russia?

2010: How effective were the internal and external policies of Josef Stalin?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?


Ordinary Level

2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Why did Stalin set up show trials and to what extent did they achieve his desired result? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the purpose of Stalin's show trials in the 1930s? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What impact did Stalin's show trials have on the Soviet Union? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the importance of Stalin's show trials in Soviet Russia? (40) 

The Case of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre (the First Show Trial)
Read the full transcript of the first show trial here. You can see that the trial was made up on just three parts: examinations of each of the accused, Vyshinsky's speech for the prosecution, and the last pleas of the accused.

Article on the Trial of the 21 (The Third Show Trial)
An article from New International (a Marxist paper) on the third show trial and its legacy. It's written through opinion, be aware of bias and propaganda.

Footage of the Third Show Trial (YouTube)
Narrated as a documentary. You can watch Vyshinsky speaking.

Russia remembers Stalin's purges (YouTube)
Russia Today news channel reports on the 70th anniversary of the show trials.

"And they all confessed..."
An overview of the show trials, with images showing just how thoroughly Stalin would remove certain people from Soviet history. 

Key Personality: Josef Stalin

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Stalin is a Key Personality for:
Russia in the Inter-War Years

Josef Stalin, c. 1930s

• Josef Stalin was born in Georgia in 1879. He joined the Bolsheviks and was a follower of Lenin. He took part in the October Revolution in 1917 and was involved in the defence of Tsaritsyn (later renamed Stalingrad).

• After the Revolution, Stalin began a slow rise to power. He became General Secretary of the Communist Party, and he appointed loyal supporters to key positions in the party. When Lenin died in 1924, there was a struggle for power between Stalin and Trotsky.

• Stalin joined with two other Communist leaders - Kamenev and Zinoviev - to oppose Trotsky, who was expected to succeed Lenin. Trotsky wanted to pursue "Permanent Revolution", spreading Communism through Europe. Stalin favoured the policy of "Socialism in One Country", which would transform the Soviet Union into a powerful and modern state.

• Once Trotsky was defeated, Stalin turned on Kamenev and Zinoviev. By 1928, he was in complete control. He turned the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state. The Communist Party controlled all industries, farms, and the press. A Cult of Stalin was developed. Propaganda posters and statues of Stalin were spread everywhere, and many cities were named after him.

• In the 1930s, Stalin organised the Great Purge in order to remove anyone he considered to be an opponent to him. People to be purged were tried in show trials in Moscow. He killed Kamenev and Zinoviev this way, and he also wiped out the entire old Communist leadership and large sections of the army, secret police and the public. The Red Army was weakened as a result.

Stalin had photos manipulated to remove anyone he had purged.
This collage shows the same photo being altered
three times, after each person was eventually purged
by Stalin.

• Stalin developed his policy of "Socialism in One Country" by starting the Five Year Plans to industrialise Russia. Stalin targeted heavy industry (coal, iron, gas and electricity) to be developed. Although Russia did become more industrialised, the living standards for workers declined. Stalin used prisoners for slave labour in work camps called gulags. 

• Stalin also began Collectivisation. Individual farms were taken over by the government and combined into collective farms. The kulaks (rich peasants) were opposed to this, so Stalin eliminated them.

• By 1939, a Second World War was looming. Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Hitler to give him more time to prepare for war. Hitler invaded Russia in 1941 and Stalin organised Russian resistance in what he called the Great Patriotic War. He sided with the Allies and took part in wartime conferences with Churchill and Roosevelt. He took credit for playing a big role in defeating Hitler.

• Stalin remained in power until his death in 1953.

In short...

• Background:
• joined the Bolsheviks, follower of Lenin.
• took part in the Revolution and Civil War.

• Rise to power:
• General Secretary of the Communist Party - appointed followers to key positions.
• Joined with Kamenev and Zinoviev to take down Trotsky after Lenin's death.
• "Socialism in One Country".

• Totalitarian Dictatorship:
• Government in control of everything, Cult of Stalin developed.
• Great Purge and show trials.
• The effect of the purges.

• Five Year Plans and Collectivisation:
• Aim of the plans.
• Five Year Plans focus and results, results of Collectivisation.
• Gulags.

• Second World War:
• Nazi -Soviet Pact.
• Great Patriotic War.
• Joined the Allies and met with Roosevelt and Churchill.

• Remained in power until his death in 1953.

Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin: the "Big Three" at Yalta, 1945.

Key Personality: Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Lenin in 1920.

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Lenin is a Key Personality for:
Russia in the Inter-War Years

• Vladimir Lenin was born in Russia in 1870. He joined the Marxist Social Democratic Party, which later became the Bolshevik party. After the first Russian revolution in February 1917, Lenin and the Bolsheviks planned and carried out the October Revolution, making Russia a Communist state.

• The Bolsheviks had little support from the Russian people at the start, so Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany to take Russia out of the First World War.

• In order to stay in power, Lenin's Bolsheviks, or Reds, had to fight the opposition forces - the Whites - in the Russian Civil War. The Red Army was organised by Trotsky. Lenin began the policy of War Communism in order to supply the army. This meant that the government controlled industry and farms, and geared everything towards the war effort. He also established a secret police, the Cheka, to eliminate opponents. The Cheka began a campaign called the Red Terror against the White forces.

• The Red forces won the civil war thanks to these actions and to Lenin's use of propaganda to make people fear the return of the tsar and the intervention of Allied armies. The Bolsheviks, now the Communist Party, were in complete control. A revolt broke out in a naval base in Kronstadt, near Petrograd, where workers were angry about the effect War Communism had had on the Russian people. The revolt was crushed by Red Army soldiers but Lenin realised he had to change his policies.

• Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy which would end food confiscation from peasants, allow them to sell surplus food and allow small-scale private industry. Lenin argued that this policy was necessary to ensure the survival of the Communist Party, and his argument was proven right when the economy improved by the mid 1920s. Rich farmers (kulaks) prospered.

The last known photo of Lenin.
The strokes had rendered him mute
and paralysed.

• Lenin suffered a series of strokes between 1922 and 1923. He died in January 1924, at the age of 53. His body lay in state for a week and was passed by thousands of mourners. A cult developed around Lenin after his death. His body was embalmed and displayed in a special mausoleum in London, and Petrograd was renamed Leningrad. He was succeeded by Josef Stalin, although his Last Testament revealed he was opposed to Stalin gaining power.

In short...

• Background:  
• Born in Russia in 1870. 
• Joined the Social Democratic Party. 
• Planned the October Revolution.

• Holding on to power: 
• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 
• Actions taken in the Civil War
• War Communism, Red Terror, Propaganda.

• After the Civil War: 
• Kronstadt Rebellion makes him realise new policies are needed. 
• New Economic Policy enacted. (measures, results)

• Death and Cult: 
• Suffered stroked in 1922 and 1923, died in 1924. 
• Lay in state for a week, body embalmed and displayed in mausoleum. 
• Petrograd renamed Leningrad.
• Cult of Lenin developed by his successor, Stalin.

"Comrade Lenin cleans the earth from scum".
What is the message of this cartoon?

Dictatorship and Democracy: Key Concepts

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe

Anti-Semitism
Hatred and persecution of Jewish people. Many European nationalists believed that the Jews were not part of their nation. The Nazis saw the Jews as an inferior race.

Blitzkrieg
German for "lightning war". Blitzkrieg was the name of the tactic used by Hitler to invade Poland. Planes attack the enemy's road and rail networks, tanks advance in to enemy territory to cut off reinforcements and infantry arrives to defeat the weakened enemy infantry units.

Collaboration
Co-operating with the enemy. This can either be done by "puppet" governments or by individuals and small groups. The Vichy France government led by Pétain collaborated with the Nazis.

Collectivisation
The policy of Stalin's government to force peasant farmers to give up their farms and form large collective farms. The work, machinery and profits were shared.

Communism
Communists believed that the working class should revolt against the middle class and abolish private property. The government would control agriculture and industry for the benefit of the people.

Democracy
A system of government where the people exercise power through voting in elections.

The Depression
A depression occurs when an economy is doing badly. Factories and businesses close and there is widespread unemployment. The Great Depression which began in 1929 was the most severe depression of the 20th century.

Dictatorship
Rule by one person or party who control all power, using propaganda and a secret police. Dictators often kill or imprison those who oppose them.

Fascism
Fascism was the belief in nationalism, dictatorship, racism and the use of violence against opponents. It was opposed to democracy and communism.

Herrenvolk
The Nazi idea of the Germans as a master race, superior to all other races.

Holocaust
The word used to describe the slaughter of Jews by Nazis in extermination camps during the Second World War.

Inflation
An increase in the price of products, usually a large increase.

Lebensraum
The Nazi policy of conquering land in Eastern Europe to make Germany self-sufficient.

Personality Cult
The worship of a leader. Propaganda is used to create an image of a wise and all-knowing leader who the people can trust.

Propaganda
Spreading information to convince people of your point of view in order to gain or maintain power.

Protectionism
Using tariffs (taxes) to protect home industry and employment from foreign competition.

Reichskirche
German for "Empire's Church". Hitler's plan to unite all of the German Protestant churches into one German national church.

Resistance
A group, usually in secret, who resist enemy troops after they have invaded a country by targeting them for surprise attacks.

Totalitarianism
Totalitarian governments seek to control all aspects of life through the use of propaganda, terror and a secret police.

Russia in the Inter-War Years

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Russia in the Inter-War Years

"The love of Stalin - the happiness of the people!"
A Soviet propaganda poster featuring Josef Stalin. What message do you think it's trying to give?

In Third Year, you occasionally met the Soviet Union. Hitler made a pact with it in 1939, it was one of the Allies in World War II, and it fought the Cold War against America for decades after that. Now, in Leaving Cert, you learn about the Soviet Union's own history.

The Russian Revolution in 1917 saw the Tsar (king) overthrown and Russia transformed from an empire into a soviet republic. A civil war soon broke out between two factions of the revolutionaries: the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. After three years of fighting, the Bolsheviks emerged victorious and the new Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (formerly Russia and all of its territories) came into being, with Vladimir Lenin as its leader.

Lenin introduced new economic policies (all under a plan called the New Economic Policy) to transform Russian society. He died after a series of strokes only a few years later, and was succeeded, after a violent power struggle, by Josef Stalin. Stalin set about creating a totalitarian dictatorship: he created a cult of personality around himself, he removed his political opponents in purges and show trials, and he tried to industrialise the Soviet economy through his Five Year Plans and Collectivisation. These measures were largely successful, but by the late 1930s bigger problems were looming on the horizon...

Continue to Italy in the Inter-War Years

• Lenin's hold on power: 
•  The Cheka, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

• The Russian Civil War, 1918-21:
• Whites and Reds, War Communism, Red Terror, Why Lenin and Trotsky won.

• The New Economic Policy (NEP):
• Kronstadt Rebellion, the main points of the NEP, the results of the NEP.

• Stalin's rise to power:
• Death of Lenin, Stalin's beliefs, Power struggle (Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev), Creating a totalitarian dictatorship, Purges and Show Trials.

• The Soviet Alternative: Transforming Society and Economy:
• Five Year Plans and Collectivisation: aims, measures and results.

Key Terms:  
Communism, Dictatorship, Totalitarianism, Cult of Personality, Propaganda, Collectivisation.
(click here)

Key Personalities: 
Vladimir Lenin
Josef Stalin.

Case Study:
Stalin's Show Trials 

A young Stalin (left) and Lenin (right). Lenin didn't trust Stalin by the end of his life, but
Stalin kept this secret and used photos like this to promote himself amongst the public.

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2015: How did Mussolini and/or Stalin use propaganda and terror to remain in power?

2014: What challenges faced the Soviet Union in peace and war, 1924-1945?

2013: How did Stalin transform the Soviet economy and/or use show trials to consolidate his power?

2012: What were the main characteristics of Stalin's rule in Russia?

2011: To what extent did Lenin and/or Stalin bring about social and economic change?

2010: How effective were the internal and external policies of Josef Stalin?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2008: What did Lenin and Stalin contribute to communism in Russia?

2006: To what extent did Stalin transform the society and economy of the Soviet Union?


Ordinary Level:
2014, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did Stalin's show trials affect life in the Soviet Union? (40)

2012, Dictatorship and Democracy Part C:
What changes in Stalin bring about in Soviet Russia? (40)

2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2013, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2014, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. (30)

2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Why did Stalin set up show trials and to what extent did they achieve his desired result? (40)

A Soviet propaganda poster for Collectivisation.
The bottom captain reads
"Poor and middle class, increasing crops, establishing a technological culture,
and strengthening the economy!"
How do you think this poster was used?

Stalin
Stalin