Key Personality: J.M. Keynes

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

John Maynard Keynes

Keynes is a Key Personality for:
Britain during the Inter-War Years

• J.M. Keynes was an economist who worked as a civil servant in the British government. He had also lectured on economic in Cambridge University.

• After World War I, he was Prime Minister Lloyd George's economic advisor at the Paris Peace Conference. He disagreed with the Treaty of Versailles and warned that the reparations Germany had to pay were too severe and would have negative economic effects on Europe. His views turned out to be correct.

• At this time, the dominant view on economics was laissez-faire, i.e. that governments should not interfere and economic depressions would sort themselves out. Keynes opposed the British return to the gold standard in the 1920s and argued that the government should help depressed areas where industries such as ship-building and cotton were in decline.

• The Great Depression undermined laissez-faire thinking. Governments and economists could not think of a way to end the Depression. In 1936, Keynes wrote The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money to explain the new economic reality. He said that governments should lower interest rates and borrow money for public works. These ideas kicked off the Keynesian Revolution, which spread after the Second World War.

• Keynes' ideas in the Beveridge Report in 1942 laid the foundations of the Welfare State which was set up in Britain after the war. In 1945, he led the British delegation to the Bretton Woods Conference in the US which was working out the details of the post-war currency system. His ideas were rejected in favour of the American "White Plan". Keynes died in 1946.

In short...

• Background:
• Economist, lecturer, civil servant.

• Keynes After World War I:
• Lloyd George's economic advisor
• Opposed the harsh reparations Germany had to pay, warned of negative economic effects.
• Opposed British return to the gold standard.
• Believed the government should help the depressed areas.

• 1930s and 40s:
• Great Depression upsets laissez-faire thinking.
• The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money
• Govts should lower interst rates and borrow money for public works (Keynesian Revolution)
• Beveridge Report: foundations of the Welfare State.
• Bretton-Woods Conference: ideas rejected in favour of "White Plan".

J.M Keynes on a 1965 issue of Time Magazine. His influence has extended for decades.© Time

Britain during the Inter-War Years

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Britain during the Inter-War Years

Mass unemployment in England during the 1920s.

In Second Year, you learned how the Industrial Revolution changed England. You saw how cities and urban life expanded and grew as factories and mines opened across the country. You saw how this made Britain wealthy, and how it modernised from the old feudal system. The spirit of the Industrial Revolution continued into the beginning of the 20th Century, until a war broke out which ended up lasting for four years...

After World War I, Europe had changed completely. The former German Empire had been reduced to a shell of its former self, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire had collapsed. The British Empire, being on the winning side, remained intact, but its economy was suffering hugely, and this just a decade before the biggest financial collapse in history...

Continue to Anglo-American Popular Culture in Peace and War

• The Causes of the English Depression:
• Decline in industry and trade (ship building, cotton, coal mining).
• Increase in competition (USA).

• Depressed Areas:
• Northern England (Clydeside, Tyneside, Lacashire) and Southern Wales.

• Government Actions:
• National Insurance Act and the Dole.
• Wage Cuts.
• Response: 1926 General Strike.

• The Great Depression:
• Its effects on Britain, the actions the government took, and Britain's experience of it vs. Germany's experience.

• Social Problems:
• Poverty, Marches (Jarrow March), leading to the Welfare State after WWII.

Key Terms:  
Inflation, Depression, Protectionism
(click here)

Key Personalities: 
J.M. Keynes

Case Study:
The Jarrow March

The British Prime Ministers of the 1920s:
David Lloyd George, Andrew Bonar Law, Stanley Baldwin and Ramsay MacDonald.

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2015: What were the economic and social problems of Britain during the inter-war years and/or what was the impact of World War II on its civilian population?

2014: How did the Jarrow March (1936) illustrate the social and economic problems facing Britain during the inter-war period?

2013: What were the challenges facing Britain in peace and war, 1920-1945?

2011: What did one or more of the following achieve in Britain during the period 1920 - 1945:
            J.M. Keynes, those who took part in the Jarrow March, Winston Churchill?

2009: What were the main social and economic challenges facing Britain, 1920 - 1945?

2008: Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war years, Britain or
             Germany? Argue your case, referring to both countries.

2007: What were the causes and consequences of the Jarrow March, October, 1936?

2006: How successfully did Britain deal with the social and economic problems of the inter-war
            period?



Ordinary Level:
2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C
2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Why did the Jarrow March (October, 1936) take place and what did it achieve? (40)

2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What did Winston Churchill and/or J.M. Keynes contribute to Britain? (40)

2010, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Why did the Jarrow March take place, October 1936, and what did it achieve? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the British economist, J.M. Keynes. (30)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What were the economic and social conditions in Britain that led to the Jarrow March in October 1936? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the economic and social problems in Britain in the 1930s. (30)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Jarrow March reflect the social and economic problems of industrial England in the 1930s? (40) 

"The subsidised mineowner - poor beggar!"
Cartoon which appeared in the Trade Union Unity magazine during the 1926 general strike.

Links go here
Links go here

Key Personality: Adolf Hitler

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Adolf Hitler

Hitler is a Key Personality for:
Germany in the Inter-War Years
Hitler's Foreign Policy & the Causes of World War II.
World War II

• Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. As a young man he wanted to become an artist, but he was rejected from the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. He was a strong supporter of German nationalism and developed a hatred of Jews early on. He joined the German Army during World War One.

• After the war, he joined the German Workers' Party. He became its leader and renamed it the German National Socialist Party, otherwise known as the Nazi Party. In 1924, the Nazis attempted to grab power by staging a putsch (coup) in Munich. They failed and Hitler was arrested and imprisoned. While in jail, he wrote his ideas about Germany, propaganda and the Jews down in a book called Mein Kampf (My Struggle).Not long after he was released from jail, the Great Depression crippled the German Weimar Republic. Unemployment rose to 6 million.

• Hitler and the Nazis became more popular and they were elected as the largest party in the Reichstag in 1933. President Hindenburg invited Hitler to become Chancellor of Germany. Hitler set about creating a totalitarian dictatorship: the Enabling Act allowed him to rule by decree and he used propaganda to create a cult of personality around himself. When Hindenburg died Hitler combined the offices to President and Chancellor to create the title of Fuhrer (leader). He put down opposition to his rule during the Night of the Long Knives, terrorised Jewish citizens with the Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht and attempted to combine the German Protestant churches into a unified Reichskirche.

• Hitler's foreign policy was very aggressive. He won power by promising to destroy the Treaty of Versailles, and he broke it by rearming the German army, remilitarising the Rhineland, and joining with Austria (Anschluss). In 1938, Britain and France allowed him to annex the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Within a year, he had invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland. This caused the Second World War.

• During the first years of the war, Hitler enjoyed many successes: he invaded and conquered Poland, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and France, as well as beginning to invade Russia. After 1942, however, he began to suffer defeats as the Allies defeated German forces in North Africa, Stalingrad and eventually from France. Hitler retreated to a bunker in Berlin, where he stayed until the Soviet Red Army reached the city. Rather than be captured, Hitler committed suicide in the bunker.

In short...

• Background:
• born in Austria, wanted to be an artist, hatred of Jews, served German army in WWI.

• Rise to power:
• Joined the German Workers' Party, became its leader, renamed it the National Socialist (Nazi) Party.
• Munich Putsch 1924 - failed, Hitler imprisoned. Wrote Mein Kampf.
• Great Depression affects the Weimar Republic, Nazis become more popular.

• Totalitarian Dictatorship:
• 1933 election, Hitler becomes Chancellor.
• Enabling Act, cult of personality, propaganda, Fuhrer.
• Night of the Long Knives: Rohm killed,opposition put down.
• Treatment of the Jews: Nuremberg Laws, Kristallnacht.
• Reichskirche - unified German Protestant church.

• Foreign Policy:
• Breaking the Versailles Treaty: rearmament, remilitarised the Rhineland.
• Anschluss with Austria.
• Munich Conference: Annexed the Sudetenland.
• Invaded Czechoslovakia and Poland, started World War II.

• World War II:
• Initial successes: most of Europe under Nazi control by 1941.
• Allies push back in 1942, Nazis defeated in several areas.
• Soviet army invades Berlin, Hitler commits suicide.

American recruitment poster featuring Hitler.

Key Personality: Josef Goebbels

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Josef Goebbels

Goebbels is a Key Personality for:
Germany in the Inter-War Years

• Josef Goebbels was educated in history, literature and phisilophy at various German universities. He was rejected from the German army in World War I because of his crippled foot. He joined the Nazi Party in 1922. He admired Adolf Hitler, the leader of that party. He was appointed district leader of the Nazi Party in Berlin. Later, Hitler made him Propaganda Leader of the Party in 1929.

• Goebbels has already run his own newspaper, Der Angriff (The Attack) to spread Nazi ideas and beliefs. As propaganda leader, he organised the Nazis' election campaigns in the early 1930s and helped bring them to power.

• In power, Hitler made Goebbels the Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Goebbels had become very experienced in propaganda techniques, he studied a variety of sources including American advertising methods. As Minister, he brought German radio, cinema, theatre, sports and the press all under Nazi control. He also directed propaganda against the Jews.

• During the Second World War, Goebbels attempted to use propaganda to boost German morale. As the Russians closed in on Berlin, Goebbels retreated with Hitler to the Fuhrer's bunker, along with his wife and children. They all committed suicide after Hitler had done the same.

In short...

• Background:
• educated in history, literature and philosohy.
• rejected from the German army.
• joined the Nazi Party and became an admirer of Hitler. Propaganda Leader of the party in 1929.

• Minister for Propaganda:
• Der Angriff, Election campaigns.
• Radio, cinema, theatre, sports, the press all under Nazi control.
• Anti-Semitic propaganda.

• World War II:
• Propaganda to boost morale.
• Retreated to bunker with Hitler and family, committed suicide.

The Goebbels family, with Hitler.

Key Personality: Leni Riefenstahl

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Leni Riefenstahl, directing a cameraman.

Riefenstahl is a Key Personality for:
Germany in the Inter-War Years

• Leni Riefenstahl began her career as a ballet dancer, until a knee injury forced her to quit. She then became a film actress during the 1920s. In 1931, she set up her own film company. She wrote, directed, produced and starred in a film called The Blue Light, which won several awards. 

• In 1934, Hitler asked her to film that year's Nuremberg Rally. She filmed parades, speeches and presentations by the army and the Hitler Youth. She directed and produced the footage as a documentary called Triumph of the Will. She used a variety of filming techniques, such as panoramic views and low-angle shots of Hitler to create what is considered to be a propaganda masterpiece. The film won many prizes around the world.

• She also produced Olympia, a documentary on the 1936 Olympic Games which were held in Berlin. Again, she used filming techniques to highlight the Nazi organisation of the event and the role of Hitler.

• After the Second World War, she was cleared of being a Nazi, as she said she did not understand Hitler's plans and only made films because she was asked to. Nevertheless, Triumph of the Will destroyed her career because of its association with the Nazis. Riefenstahl began a new career as a still photographer. She spent time in Africa photographing the Sudanese Nuba tribe, and she made her first documentary in decades in 2002, about underwater life. She died in 2003, aged 101.

An example of Riefenstahl's techniques.
Hitler is filmed from a low angle to
make him appear larger than life.

In short...

• Background:
• Originally a ballet dancer, became a film actress and set up her own film company.
• The Blue Light
  

• Working for Hitler:
• Triumph of the Will: 1934 Nuremberg Rally, filming techniques as propaganda.
• Olympia: 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.

• Life after Hitler:
• Cleared of being a Nazi, but her career was destroyed because of Nazi associations.
• Became a still photographer (Sudan) and made a documentary about underwater life.

Riefenstahl in Sudan in later years.

Dictatorship and Democracy: Case Study 2: The Nuremberg Rallies

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe >  Case Study 2: The Nuremberg Rallies

Crowds at the 1936 Nuremberg Rally.

Some of the most famous scenes of Hitler's entire time in power are in the footage of his speeches to rallies. Thousands of people would attend to partake in a celebration of Germany, the Nazi Party and Hitler himself. The rallies were filmed and used as propaganda for other countries, to show how great and glorious Germany had become again after her defeat in World War I. Leni Riefenstahl famously captured the 1934 Nuremberg Rally in her film "Triumph of the Will", which is considered to be a masterpiece of Nazi propaganda.

• The First Rallies
• Explain the purpose of the rallies, the role of Albert Speer.

• Locations
• Zeppelin Field, March Field, Luitpold Arena, Congress Hall.
• Architecture, construction and transport.

• Organisation of the Rallies
• Themes, Opera, Party Roll of Honour, Presentations, Hitler's speech.

• Why Nuremberg?
• Medieval city, symbol of Nazism, Allied victory parade, Nuremberg Trials.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2008: What contribution did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?

2007: What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933 - 1939?


Ordinary Level

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What took place at the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany in the 1930s? (30) 

2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the importance for Nazi Germany of the Nuremberg Rallies? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies and/or Leni Riefenstahl contribute to the Nazi regime? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help to create propaganda for Hitler and the Nazi regime? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl use the German mass media to promote the Nazi movement? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help bring support to the Nazi regime in Germany? (40) 

Hitler saluting at a rally.

Pictures from the 1936 Nuremberg Rally
These pictures were originally featured as propaganda in a Nazi record book of the rally.

Footage of the 1938 Nuremberg Rally
The US Holocaust Memorial Museum has an American newsreel about the 1938 rally.

British Pathé: Nuremberg Rallies
The British Pathé collection of newsreels and video clips on the rallies.

Nuremberg Museum: Nazi Party Rally Grounds
The Nuremberg Museum site has a few features on the grounds and buildings used for the rallies. Have a look. 

Overview of the 1934 Nuremberg Rally
This was the rally Riefenstahl filmed for "Triumph of the Will".

Germany in the Inter-War Years

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Germany in the Inter-War Years

Nazi Party members salute Hitler at a rally. Photo © Life

You learned about Hitler and Nazi Germany in Third Year (just as you did Mussolini), and now you'll revisit Hitler's Germany for a closer look. How exactly did he achieve power? What helped him? What hindered him? What did his policies mean for Germany, and for the world?

You will look more closely at the laws he passed and the actions he took when in power. His foreign policy will be examined in a later section.

This section contains the second Case Study for this topic, the Nuremberg Rallies, footage of which is usually shown in a TV show or documentary that wants to mention Hitler. There are also three key personalities: Propaganda minister Josef Goebbels, film-maker Leni Riefenstahl, and of course Hitler himself.

Continue to Britain in the Inter-War Years

• Hitler's Rise to Power
• The Weimar Republic, Dawes Plan, Inflation and Great Depression, Mein Kampf and Propaganda.

• Establishing a Dictatorship:
• 1933 election, Enabling Act, Night of the Long Knives, Goebbels and Propaganda, Education and the Hitler Youth.

• The Economy:
• Unemployment, Conscription, Autarky, Autobahns, Volkswagen, "Beauty and Strength through Joy".

• Church-State Relations
• Reichskirche (Protestant), Concordat (Catholic), Broken promises, Propaganda, "Mit Brennender Sorge (With Burning Rage)".

• Hitler and the Jews:
• "Herrenvolk", Anti-Semitic Propaganda, Nuremberg Laws, Kristallnacht, the Final Solution.

Key Terms:  
Inflation, Depression, Totalitarianism, Propaganda, Cult of Personality, Reichskirche, Herrenvolk, Anti-Semitism, Holocaust.
(click here)

Key Personalities: 
Adolf Hitler
Josef Goebbels 
Leni Riefenstahl

Case Study:
The Nuremberg Rallies

"Children, what do you know of the Fuhrer?"
Hitler Youth propaganda poster.

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2015: What were the social and economic problems facing Germany, 1920-1939, and how were they dealt with?

2012: How did Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust affect Europe, 1920 - 1945?

2011: What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933 - 1939?

2010: How successfully did German governments deal with the social and economic problems of the
             period 1920 - 1945?
2010: What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2008: Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war years, Britain or
              Germany? Argue your case, referring to both countries.
2008: What contribution did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?

2007: What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933 - 1939?

2006: During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of
          fascist regimes?


Ordinary Level:
2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust. (30)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Church-State relations in Germany under Hitler. (30)

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What took place at the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany in the 1930s? (30) 

2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the importance for Nazi Germany of the Nuremberg Rallies? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies and/or Leni Riefenstahl contribute to the Nazi regime? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help to create propaganda for Hitler and the Nazi regime? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did Josef Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl use the German mass media to promote the Nazi movement? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did the Nuremberg Rallies help bring support to the Nazi regime in Germany? (40) 

Hitler admires a model of the new Volkswagen (People's Car)

Links go here
Links go here

Key Personality: Benito Mussolini

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Benito Mussolini

Mussolini is a Key Personality for:
Italy in the Inter-War Years.

• Benito Mussolini was born in Italy in 1883. He originally joined the Socialist Party but was expelled when he campaigned for Italy to join the First World War. He turned to nationalism and founded the fascio di combattimento (combat groups) after the war. They opposed the growth of socialism in Italy and violently attacked socialists.

• He transformed the combat groups into a political party - the Fascist Party. He led the March on Rome to demand a role in the government for the fascists. King Victor Emmanuel did not support the existing government so he appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister.

• Mussolini then set about creating a totalitarian dictatorship: he passed the Acerbo Law which stated that the political party with the most votes in the next election would automatically get two-thirds of the Parliament seats, ensuring he would be in power. He also used propaganda through radio and cinema. The murder of Socialist leader Giacomo Matteoti by Fascists led to the Socialist Party leaving Parliament in protest. Mussolini took full control and gained the ability to rule by decree. He created a cult of personality around himself and became il Duce (the leader).

• He wanted more Fascist control of the economy so he established the Corporate State to achieve this. He followed a policy of self-sufficiency and organised a series of "Battles" e.g. the Battle for Grai to increase grain production. He drained the Pontine Marshes near Rome in order to reclaim the land, and he built new autostrada (motorways). These actions reduced unemployment.

• He signed the Lateran Treaty with the Pope, granting the Pope the Vatican state in return for his acknowledgement of the Italian state. Italy paid compensation for taking Rome from the Pope in 1870 and Catholicism was recognised as the sole religion of the state.

• Mussolini's foreign policy was based on expansion. He regained Fiume from Yugoslavia and held on to Corfu until Greece agreed to pay 50 million lira compensation for the deaths of Italian soldiers. Mussolini later signed the Locarno Pact and the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which outlawed war. Despite this he continued his policy of expansion and in the 1930s he invaded Abyssinia and aided Franco in the Spanish Civil War.

• Initially, he was opposed to granting Austria to Hitler, but when Hitler supported his invasion of Abyssinia and also helped Franco, Mussolini became allies with him, signing the Rome-Berlin Axis and later the Pact of Steel, which committed Italy to joining the war with Germany.

• When World War II began, Mussolini kept Italy out at first due to the weakness of the army. He joined after Hitler had conquered France. The Italian Army performed very badly. It was defeated in North Africa, and Allied forces pushed up from there through southern Italy. King Victor Emmanuel deposed Mussolini. Hitler rescued him from capture and hid him in northern Italy, where he was captured again and shot dead by Italian partisans (guerilla fighters).

In short...

• Background:
• originally joined the Socialists, expelled and turned to nationalism.
• founded fascio di combattimento.

• Rise to power:
• Created the Fascist Party, March on Rome, made Prime Minister.

• Totalitarian Dictatorship:
• Acerbo Law
• Propaganda and cult of personality (il Duce)
• Matteoti crisis
• Rule by decree

• The Economy:
• Corporate State (Battles)
• Reclaimed the Pontine marshes.
• Autostrada

• Church-State relations:
• Lateran Treaty

• Foreign Policy and World War II
• Initial successes: Fiume, Corfu
• Locarno Pact, Kellogg-Briand Pact
• Invasion of Abyssinia, Spanish Civil War
• Relationship with Hitler (Rome-Berlin Axis, Pact of Steel)
• Italy in WWII (poor army, Mussolini deposed, captured and killed).

Allied propaganda poster featuring Mussolini.
"Dunce says, the Allies make me so mad that I am going right out in the back yard and eat worms."
What is the message of this poster?

Italy in the Inter-War Years

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Italy in the Inter-War Years

The headquarters of the Italian Fascist Party in Rome during the 1930s.
Mussolini's face adorns a wall full of the word "Si" (Yes).

Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler,
two fascist dictators.

In Third Year, you learned how fascist regimes took control in Italy and in Germany. You learned about Benito Mussolini and his actions: how he established a dictatorship, how he tried to create a corporate state, and how his foreign policy affected Europe and the world.

In this section, you will revisit Mussolini (and later Hitler) and examine his actions in more detail. Your previous study of him will give you an advantage when learning this section, and you'll learn some new information about aspects you haven't looked at before, such as Mussolini's dealings with the Catholic Church.

In Leaving Cert, you may be asked to compare the features of a fascist dictatorship with the communist dictatorship established by Stalin. Both are totalitarian, but as you re-examine Mussolini you may find some similarities and differences you had not noticed before. You will also compare the emergence of dictatorships across much of Europe to the perseverance of democracy in places such as Britain and France.

Continue to Germany in the Inter-War Years

• Why dictatorships?  
• Reasons for Mussolini's rise to power.

• Establishing a dictatorship: 
• March on Rome, Acerbo Law, Matteoti, OVRA, propaganda.

• Church-State Relations:  
• Improving relations with the Catholic Church, the Lateran Treaty (1929), clashes about the Jews.

• The Economy: 
• Corporate State, self-sufficiency, autostrada, "Battles".

• Foreign Policy:
• "Italia Irredenta" (expansion), Locarno Pact, relationship with Hitler, Invasion of Abyssinia, Rome-Berlin Axis, Italy in the Second World War.

Key Terms:  
Dictatorship, Fascism, Totalitarianism, Propaganda, Cult of Personality, Inflation, Depression.
(click here)

Key Personalities: 
Benito Mussolini

Italian fascist propaganda poster. It reads "We have new and old scores to settle: we will settle them."
The SPQR stands for a Latin phrase from Ancient Rome, meaning "the Senate and People of Rome".
This was the signature of the ancient Roman government. It can be found on ancient Roman coins.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2015: How did Mussolini and/or Stalin use propaganda and terror to remain in power?

2013: What were the characteristics of fascist regimes in Europe in the inter-war period?

2011: How effective were the internal and external policies of Benito Mussolini?

2010, 2014: What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?

2006: During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of fascist regimes?


Ordinary Level:
2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on church-state relations in Italy under Mussolini. (30)

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C
2010, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What developments took place in church-state relations in Italy under Mussolini? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Would you agree that the leadership of Benito Mussolini was a disaster for Italy? Argue your case. (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How did fascism develop in Italy under Benito Mussolini? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What were the successes and failures in the career of Benito Mussolini?(40)

An Italian fascist propaganda poster. It says "Defend!" It shows Italy as a child being threatened by three hands: the Jews, the Soviet Union, and the Freemasons (a secret fraternal society).
Fascism was opposed to all three groups.
Do you think this kind of propaganda is effective?

Links go here
Links go here

Leaving Cert History: Modern Europe and the Wider World

Main Page: Leaving Cert History

You must study two topics each from Modern Ireland and from Modern Europe and the Wider World. One of the topics will be a prescribed topic for the Document Question in the Leaving Cert exam.

This section is still under development. I am adding the most popular topics first, then I will add the others.

Click on the buttons below to find the topic you want. 

So far, only Dictatorship and Democracy and The United States and the World are online.

Leaving Cert History: Modern Ireland

Main Page: Leaving Cert History

You must study two topics each from Modern Ireland and from Modern Europe and the Wider World. One of the topics will be a prescribed topic for the Document Question in the Leaving Cert exam.

This section is still under development. I am adding the most popular topics first, then I will add the others.

Click on the buttons below to find the topic you want.

I have not begun work on the Irish topics yet. I will soon work on Movements for Political and Social Reform, 1870 - 1914.

 

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Whether you're a student, a teacher or a parent, you can leave any comments or questions you have on this page.

This comment page is a trial run. This will be the only way to communicate with me. I will not be setting up an email address for the site, nor will I provide one if asked. Every interaction on this site will be public. You are free to comment anonymously, and even though I am able to look at statistics telling me how many people are visiting the site, I do not have the ability to identify any visitor.

There are three simple rules for commenting:

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Dictatorship and Democracy: Case Study 1: Stalin's Show Trials

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe >  Case Study 1: Stalin's Show Trials

Andrey Vyshinsky, prosecutor at each
of the show trials.

One of the most terrifying ways through which Stalin established a totalitarian dictatorship in the Soviet Union was through his purges and his show trials. Anyone who Stalin believed was opposed to him would face one or the other. Millions of people would die from the purges, from ordinary people to leading members of the Communist Party.

The so-called Great Purge began in 1936 with the arrest of Kamenev and Zinoviev, Stalin's former allies in his power struggle against Trotsky. They, and others, were put on show trials in Moscow. For this case study, you'll take a close look at Stalin's show trials, so you can assess the impact that they had on Stalin's Russia and how Stalin used them for his own gain.

• The First Show Trial, 1936
• Accused: Kamenev, Zinoviev, 14 others.
• Charges: murdering Kirov, plotting to murder Stalin, working with Trotskyites.
• Trial: Forced confessions, Vyshinsky prosecuting, Learning off lines, Confessions as evidence, K. and Z. plead guilty, executed.

• The Second Show Trial, 1937
• Accused: Radek, Pyatakov, 15 others.
• Charges: conspiring with Germany and Japan against the USSR, sabotage of the Five Year Plans.
• Trial: Vyshinsky prosecuting, They confess and are found guilty. 13 executed, 4 sent to labour camps. 

• The Third Show Trial, 1938
• Accused: Bukharin, Rykov, Yagoda, 18 others.
• Charges: membership of the "Anti-Soviet Block of Rightists and Trotskyites", economic sabotage, plotting to murder Stalin.
• Trial: Vyshinsky prosecuting, All plead guilty and are executed. Bukharin pleads guilty to save wife and children.

• Reaction: Many inside and outside the Soviet Union believed the trials were legal. Soviet citizens believed there was a conspiracy against the Soviet Union.

• Stalin's Role: Directed by Stalin in secret, Show trials used as propaganda, denounced by Khrushchev after Stalin's death.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2012: What were the main characteristics of Stalin's rule in Russia?

2010: How effective were the internal and external policies of Josef Stalin?

2009: How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?


Ordinary Level

2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
Why did Stalin set up show trials and to what extent did they achieve his desired result? (40)

2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the purpose of Stalin's show trials in the 1930s? (40)

2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What impact did Stalin's show trials have on the Soviet Union? (40)

2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What was the importance of Stalin's show trials in Soviet Russia? (40) 

The Case of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre (the First Show Trial)
Read the full transcript of the first show trial here. You can see that the trial was made up on just three parts: examinations of each of the accused, Vyshinsky's speech for the prosecution, and the last pleas of the accused.

Article on the Trial of the 21 (The Third Show Trial)
An article from New International (a Marxist paper) on the third show trial and its legacy. It's written through opinion, be aware of bias and propaganda.

Footage of the Third Show Trial (YouTube)
Narrated as a documentary. You can watch Vyshinsky speaking.

Russia remembers Stalin's purges (YouTube)
Russia Today news channel reports on the 70th anniversary of the show trials.

"And they all confessed..."
An overview of the show trials, with images showing just how thoroughly Stalin would remove certain people from Soviet history. 

Key Personality: Josef Stalin

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > Key Personalities

Stalin is a Key Personality for:
Russia in the Inter-War Years

Josef Stalin, c. 1930s

• Josef Stalin was born in Georgia in 1879. He joined the Bolsheviks and was a follower of Lenin. He took part in the October Revolution in 1917 and was involved in the defence of Tsaritsyn (later renamed Stalingrad).

• After the Revolution, Stalin began a slow rise to power. He became General Secretary of the Communist Party, and he appointed loyal supporters to key positions in the party. When Lenin died in 1924, there was a struggle for power between Stalin and Trotsky.

• Stalin joined with two other Communist leaders - Kamenev and Zinoviev - to oppose Trotsky, who was expected to succeed Lenin. Trotsky wanted to pursue "Permanent Revolution", spreading Communism through Europe. Stalin favoured the policy of "Socialism in One Country", which would transform the Soviet Union into a powerful and modern state.

• Once Trotsky was defeated, Stalin turned on Kamenev and Zinoviev. By 1928, he was in complete control. He turned the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state. The Communist Party controlled all industries, farms, and the press. A Cult of Stalin was developed. Propaganda posters and statues of Stalin were spread everywhere, and many cities were named after him.

• In the 1930s, Stalin organised the Great Purge in order to remove anyone he considered to be an opponent to him. People to be purged were tried in show trials in Moscow. He killed Kamenev and Zinoviev this way, and he also wiped out the entire old Communist leadership and large sections of the army, secret police and the public. The Red Army was weakened as a result.

Stalin had photos manipulated to remove anyone he had purged.
This collage shows the same photo being altered
three times, after each person was eventually purged
by Stalin.

• Stalin developed his policy of "Socialism in One Country" by starting the Five Year Plans to industrialise Russia. Stalin targeted heavy industry (coal, iron, gas and electricity) to be developed. Although Russia did become more industrialised, the living standards for workers declined. Stalin used prisoners for slave labour in work camps called gulags. 

• Stalin also began Collectivisation. Individual farms were taken over by the government and combined into collective farms. The kulaks (rich peasants) were opposed to this, so Stalin eliminated them.

• By 1939, a Second World War was looming. Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Hitler to give him more time to prepare for war. Hitler invaded Russia in 1941 and Stalin organised Russian resistance in what he called the Great Patriotic War. He sided with the Allies and took part in wartime conferences with Churchill and Roosevelt. He took credit for playing a big role in defeating Hitler.

• Stalin remained in power until his death in 1953.

In short...

• Background:
• joined the Bolsheviks, follower of Lenin.
• took part in the Revolution and Civil War.

• Rise to power:
• General Secretary of the Communist Party - appointed followers to key positions.
• Joined with Kamenev and Zinoviev to take down Trotsky after Lenin's death.
• "Socialism in One Country".

• Totalitarian Dictatorship:
• Government in control of everything, Cult of Stalin developed.
• Great Purge and show trials.
• The effect of the purges.

• Five Year Plans and Collectivisation:
• Aim of the plans.
• Five Year Plans focus and results, results of Collectivisation.
• Gulags.

• Second World War:
• Nazi -Soviet Pact.
• Great Patriotic War.
• Joined the Allies and met with Roosevelt and Churchill.

• Remained in power until his death in 1953.

Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin: the "Big Three" at Yalta, 1945.