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The US Economy: Boom and Recession, 1945 - 1989

Leaving Cert > The United States and the World > The US Economy: Boom and Recession, 1945 - 1989

One of the very first McDonald's restaurants to open in the 1950s, in Des Plaines, Illinois. It's now a museum.

By now, you've looked at the United States' foreign policy and how it became more involved in world affairs as the Cold War began. You've also looked at how domestic events taking place within the US shaped that foreign policy and influenced the decisions of the Government. Now we're going to look at another layer - the economy.

From your own life, you should already be very familiar with how an economy performing well or badly can impact on the decisions a government takes. Our own economy has been poor for the last five years, and we're living through the decisions our own government is taking because of that. In the years after World War II, the American economy was performing extremely well (a boom), which contributed to America's new position as one of the world's dominant superpowers. Nothing lasts forever though, and the US economy eventually fell into recession.

In this section, you'll learn how the booming economy contributed to how the US Government acted at home and abroad, how the recession began to change that, and what the Presidents of the 1970s and 80s tried to do to repair it.

Continue to Society in the United States, 1945 - 1989

Causes of the Boom

How did World War II influence the US economy?
What advantages did the US economy have over Europe in the postwar years?
How did public investment develop? What did the government spend on? What role did research & development play? What role did cheap energy play? What role did technological development play?

Industry

Multinational Corporations: What caused multinational expansion? How did foreign investment change over the years? What external factors were there?
Globalisation: What is "Americanisation"? Give reasons for and against globalisation.
Military-Industrial Complex: What was Eisenhower's warning about? How did the complex develop? What was the Iron Triangle?

Demographics

Causes of the population increase: Birth rates, immigration.
Demographic Changes: Population structure, mobility, growth of suburbs, interstate infrastructure.

Recession

Causes: What was the Vietnam War's impact? What is a deficit?
Domestic Impact: Labour costs, Unemployment, Stagflation.
Government Response: What economic actions did Nixon, Ford and Carter take? Were they successful? What was Reaganomics and what effect did it have?
International Competition: Japan and West Germany: How did they close the gap between themselves and the US?

Key Concepts:
Technological Development
Corporate Capitalism
Globalisation
Imperialism


More American families moved to the suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s. Photo © AMC

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2016: What were the strengths and weaknesses of the US economy, 1945-1989?

2014: What were the significant developments in the US economy, 1945-1989?

2013: What was the impact on the US economy of one or more of the following: the multinational corporation; the military-industrial complex; international competition from Japan and Europe?

2012: To what extent did the US economy experience both success and decline during the period 1945-1989?

2010: Why did the United States experience an economic boom, 1945-1968, and what was its impact on society?

Ordinary Level:
2014, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the US economic boom, 1945-1968.

2006, The United States and the World, Part B
2010, The United States and the World, Part B
2012, The United States and the World, Part B
2016, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the multinational corporation, 1945-1968.

President Ronald Reagan's economic policies came to be known as "Reaganomics".

US Foreign Policy, 1972 - 1989

Leaving Cert > The United States and the World > US Foreign Policy, 1945-72

US President Richard Nixon (right) talks with Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev (left) through an interpreter in 1973.

When he became President of the United States in January 1969, Richard Nixon faced a very difficult decision when it came to his nation's foreign policy: what was he going to do about Vietnam? His decision to withdraw US troops and hold a peace conference - effectively surrendering South Vietnam to the North - left an impact on US foreign policy which lasted right up to the 1990s and 2000s.

Free of Vietnam, Nixon and his successors turned their attentions to Russia. A new policy called "détente" was born, where both superpowers would try to peacefully co-exist - that is, until the election of Ronald Reagan as President, a man who decried the Soviet Union as an "evil empire". It was expected that Reagan would butt heads with the leaders of the Soviet Union, but his meetings with the new Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev had results that nobody thought were possible...

Continue to The US Economy: Boom and Recession, 1945 - 1989

Nixon and Vietnam (1969 - 1973)

What was Vietnamisation? What was peace with honour? What was the Nixon Doctrine?
What did Nixon do in Cambodia? Why? What were the effects of this?
What was the credibility gap and how did it come about?
What happened as a result of the peace treaty?
What was the legacy of the Vietnam War on the United States?

Nixon and Détente (1969 - 1974)

What is détente?
What was the impact of Nixon's visit to China?
What was the SALT agreement with Russia?
How did the Arab-Israeli War break out? What was Nixon's response?
Why did Nixon become involved in Chile?

Ford, Carter and Détente (1974 - 1981)

President Ford: Meetings with Brezhnev, Helsinki Agreeement, relations with Congress.
President Carter: Moral Principles, Camp David Accords, SALT II.

Reagan and the "Evil Empire" (1981 - 1989)

Why did US-USSR relations deteriorate in the late 70s and early 80s?
Why did Reagan begin an arms build-up?
What was Reagan's approach to the Soviet Union? What was the "evil empire" speech?
What was the Strategic Defence Intiative (Star Wars)?
How did Reagan's relationship with Gorbachev change things?
What did Gorbachev's reforms result in?

President Reagan and his Strategic Defence Initiative (Star Wars) on the cover of Time, April 1983.© Time

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2012: What part did one or more of the following play in US foreign policy: Korea; Cuba; SALT and Star Wars?

2011: Why did the US lose Vietnam?

2007: What were the significant developments in US foreign policy, 1973-1989?

2006: What were the successes and failures of the political career of Ronald Reagan?

Ordinary Level:
2015, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on SALT and Star Wars (30).

2014, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the US withdrawal from Vietnam. (30)

2011, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the Détente, SALT and Star Wars. (30)

President Jimmy Carter (centre) meets with Egyptian President Anwar al Sadat (left) and Israeli Prime Minister Menachim Begin (right)
at Camp David.

Domestic Factors in US Foreign Policy 1945-72

Leaving Cert > The United States and the World > Domestic Factors in US Foreign Policy, 1945-72

So, while the United States was assuming a more active role in the world, what was happening back at home? The American people rejoiced at their victory at the end of World War II, but they quickly found themselves fearing a new enemy: communism. The involvement of US troops in wars against communist forces in Korea and Vietnam inspired a fear of communism reaching the US itself - anyone suspected of being a "commie" was regarded a traitor.

As time wore on, the American peoples' mood began to change. By the late 1960s the Vietnam War had become very unpopular, and the Anti-War movement began to gain strength. At the same time, public opinion was slowly turning against the segregation of white and black people, and a new civil rights movement was emerging.

In this section, you will look at how these events shaped and influenced the foreign policies you learned about in the last section. Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson each had to deal with these issues. How did they deal with them, and what did that mean for America's place in the world?

Continue to US Foreign Policy, 1972-89

McCarthyism and the Red Scare

Who was Joseph McCarthy and how did he spread the Red Scare?
Who did he accuse? What were his investigations and hearings like?
What led to his downfall?
What influence did all this have on US foreign policy?

The Anti-War Movement

What reasons did people have for opposing the wars?
What impact did student protests have?
What impact did the Tet Offensive and Johnson's unpopularity have? What was the credibility gap?
Anti-war Politicians: Who opposed the war? What influence did they have?
Kent State: What happened here?
Loss of Trust: What impact did the My Lai massacre have on public opinion? What was President Nixon's response?

Race Relations

Desegregating the Armed Forces: Why did this happen?
Publicity and Image: Why were presidents concerned with how other countries saw segregation in the US?
The Vietnam War: What impact did the war have on black communities? What changes were made in the military?

Key Concepts:
Public Opinion
Military-Industrial Complex

Key Personalities:
Joe McCarthy

An anti-war pin from the 1960s.

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2016: During the period 1945-1989, what was the impact on US society of McCarthyism and/or the anti-war movement?

2013: What were the main developments in race relations in the US, 1945 - 1968?

2012: How well did President Harry Truman or President Lyndon Johnson handle the challenges he faced?

2007: How did McCarthyism and/or the anti-war movement affect US foreign policy, 1945-1972?

Ordinary Level:
2015, The United States and the World, Part C
2013, The United States and the World, Part C:
How did Joe McCarthy contribute to a "red scare" in the US? (40)

2011, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Joe McCarthy and the "red scare". (30)

2007, The United States and the World, Part C:
What part did President Truman play in the history of the United States? (40)
How did Senator Joe McCarthy influence the direction of foreign policy in the United States? (40)

The Chicago Defender reporting on President Truman's order to desegregate the Armed Forces.
Note the second biggest headline - racism was still prevalent in many parts of America at this time.

US Foreign Policy, 1945 - 1972

Leaving Cert > The United States and the World > US Foreign Policy, 1945-72

The Korean War (1950-53) was the first major conflict the US participated in
after the end of World War II in 1945.

You might remember your parents watching the news as you grew up, with constant headlines and reports about the Iraq War, or the war in Afghanistan. Both of these conflicts arose after the events of 9/11, and they're both cases of American involvement in conflicts in different parts of the world. Since the end of World War II, the US has been seen as something like a policeman of the world, intervening in other countries' conflicts and affairs when it thinks it's necessary to do so. People have a lot of different opinions on whether this is a good thing or not, but no matter what your opinion is, in this part of the course you examine the origins of this foreign policy.

In the months after the end of World War II, the US and the Soviet Union soon turned from allies to enemies. Both countries were able to develop nuclear weapons, and a war between them with these weapons would have disastrous consequences for the entire world. The conflict between the two countries became known as the Cold War, because it involved very little actual fighting. There were incidents which nearly turned the Cold War hot, however, and you will look at them here...

Continue to Domestic Factors in US Foreign Policy, 1945-72

Truman's Foreign Policy (1945-53)

The atomic bomb: Why did Truman use it?
How relations with Russia deteriorated and the effect of the Keenan Long Telegram.
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan: What were their goals? What were their effects?
The Berlin Airlift: How did Truman respond to the crisis?
The Korean War: Why did the US get involved? What happened during the war? How did it end?

Eisenhower's Foreign Policy (1953-61)

The Domino Theory and the policy of deterrence.
Peaceful coexistence between the US and the Soviets.
The U-2 spy plane: What happened and what was its effect?

Kennedy's Foreign Policy (1961-63)

The Cuban Missile Crisis: How did it begin? What was Kennedy's response? What was Khruschev's response? How did it end?
US involvement in Vietnam: Why did the US become involved? Why did Kennedy increase the number of US troops?

Johnson's Foreign Policy (1963-69)

The Vietnam War (see the Case Study)

Case Study:
Lyndon Johnson and Vietnam, 1963-8

Key Personalities:
Harry S. Truman
Lyndon Johnson

Soviet Premier Khrushchev (left) and US President Kennedy (right), deadlocked in a cold war...

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2016: Who was the greater president, Truman or Johnson? Argue your case, referring to both in your answer.

2015: During the period 1945-1989, what was the importance for US foreign policy of one or more of the following: Berlin; Korea; Cuba?

2014: What were the strengths and weaknesses of Lyndon Johnson as a political leader?

2013: Which president was more successful in his handling of US foreign policy, Harry Truman or Lyndon Johnson? Argue your case, referring to both.

2012: What part did one or more of the following play in US foreign policy: Korea; Cuba; SALT and Star Wars?

2011: Why did the US lose the Vietnam War?

2010: What were the successes and failures of the presidency of Lyndon Johnson?

2006: Which had a greater impact on the United States: involvement in Korea or involvement in Vietnam? Argue your case, referring to both.

Ordinary Level:
2016, The United States and the World, Part C:
Why did President Lyndon Johnson fail to achieve US aims in Vietnam, 1963-1968?

2015, The United States and the World, Part C:
What policies did Lyndon Johnson follow in relation to the war in Vietnam? (40)

2013, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Harry Truman. (30)
2013, The United States and the World, Part C:
What problems did one or more of the following pose for the US: Berlin; Korea; Cuba? (40)

2016, The United States and the World, Part C
2012, The United States and the World, Part C:
How did President Harry Truman conduct foreign affairs between 1945 and 1953? (40)
What problems did President Johnson encounter in dealing with Vietnam? (40)

2011, The United States and the World, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the Cuban Missile Crisis. (30)

2011, The United States and the World, Part C:
What did Harry Truman achieve as President of the United States? (40)

2010, The United States and the World, Part C:
How successful was Lyndon Johnson as a political leader at home and abroad? (40)

2007, The United States and the World, Part C:
What part did President Truman play in the history of the United States? (40)

President Kennedy and the man who succeeded him, Vice President Lyndon Johnson.

Introduction to US Politics

Leaving Cert > The United States and the World > Introduction to US Politics

President Barack Obama giving the State of the Union address to members of Congress and the Supreme Court.

Even if you've never studied American politics before, chances are you know quite a bit about it already. The President of the United States is one of the most famous people in the world (no matter who he - or she - is). The President leads the US, but he doesn't get to do whatever he wants. The US Government is also made up of the two houses of Congress (the Senate and the House of Representatives) and the Supreme Court, the most powerful court in the US.

This section of The United States and the World introduces you to the American style of government, the one which is said to be "of the people, by the people, for the people." In particular you'll look at the nine Presidents who served between the years 1945 and 1989, and track not just how each of these men performed their duties, but how they each managed to change the role of the President in their own way.

Continue to US Foreign Policy, 1945-72

Definitions (representative democracy, republic, federal system, etc.)

Democrats and Republicans: Who are they? What are the differences between them?

The difference between federal government and states' government.

Separation of Powers

Legislative, Judicial, Executive
The role of the Supreme Court.
The roles of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The Roles of the President.

How the roles of the President have changed: You'll look at each President and their actions over the course of the module, but it's good to start off here by learning their names, dates and the events and programmes that are associated with them. In particular in this section you should focus on each President's relationship with Congress.

Roosevelt: imperial presidency, creating the Executive Office
Truman: active foreign policy, Truman Doctrine, relations with Congress
Eisenhower: Dynamic conservatism, Domino Theory, relations with Congress
Kennedy: Relations with Congress, Cuba
Johnson: Domestic programs, relations with Congress, role in Vietnam
Nixon: Supreme Court, imperial presidency, scandals
Limiting the roles of the President: Ford, Carter.
Reagan: "Reagan Revolution", Reaganomics, Policies, Iran-Contra

Key Concepts:
Separation of Powers
Presidential Bureaucracy
Liberalism

The current Justices of the US Supreme Court.

In later sections you'll find questions asking you to write about specific Presidents. As well as using the information from the sections they belong in (US Foreign Policy 1945-68 and the Vietnam War case study for Johnson for example), use the information you learn here as well.

Higher Level (100 marks each)

2011: How did the US Presidency develop from Roosevelt to Reagan?

This is the only exam question so far to concern this section of the course. 2015 and 2016 might see more questions!

Presidents past, present and future at a Speaker's funeral in 1961:
John F. Kennedy (President 1961-3), Lyndon Johnson (1963-9), Dwight Eisenhower (1953-61) and Harry Truman (1945-53)

Gerald Ford (President 1974-77), Ronald Reagan (1981-89), Jimmy Carter (1977-81) and Richard Nixon (1969-74) meeting in the White House in 1981.

The five currently living Presidents: George H.W. Bush (1989-93), Barack Obama (2009 - ),
George W. Bush (2001-9), Bill Clinton (1993-2001) and Jimmy Carter (1977-81).
Of the nine Presidents that you will study in this course, Carter is the only one still alive in 2014.
Obama, Clinton and the two Bushes aren't on the History course (yet).

Welcome! This site is designed to help you with your study of Junior Cert and Leaving Cert History. To the left, you'll see links for each year. Click on your year and you will find a list of all the topics you will study. Each topic page has information, tips and links to pictures, games and other useful websites.

About History Help

How do I use History Help?

SITE UPDATE: All pages for the Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe Leaving Cert topic are now complete. I'm working on the other Leaving Cert topics at the moment, hope to have Pursuit of Sovereignty and the Impact of Partition up very soon, as it's the prescribed topic for the 2014 Leaving Cert examination. I can't make any promises with time as I work full-time myself, but I'll do my best!

The prescribed topic for the 2016 and 2017 Leaving Cert exams will be Dictatorship and Democracy.


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11 Time-Travelling Photos of World War One: Then and Now

Dictatorship and Democracy: Key Personalities

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe

Below is the complete list of Key Personalities for Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe, 1920 - 1945.

Each of these personalities are linked on their own relevant pages (e.g. Stalin is linked on the Russia in the Inter-War Years page).

They are listed in alphabetical order.

Charlie Chaplin
British-born actor. Became very famous in the 1920s and 30s, especially for his "Tramp" character. (Anglo-American Popular Culture in Peace and War)

Winston Churchill
British Prime Minister, 1940 - 1945. Led Britain during World War II and was one of the "Big Three" to take part in wartime conferences. (World War II)

Bing Crosby
American singer. Most famous for the song "White Christmas", Crosby had a very successful career as an actor and recording artist from the 1920s until his death. (Anglo-American Popular Culture in Peace and War)

Josef Goebbels
German Nazi official. Goebbels was in charge of Nazi propaganda before and during Hitler's time in power. (Germany in the Inter-War Years)

Adolf Hitler
Fuhrer of Germany, 1933 - 1945. Leader of the Nazi Party, attempted to conquer Europe and establish a totalitarian dictatorship. (Germany in the Inter-War Years, World War II)

J.M. Keynes
British economist. His ideas in the 1920s and 30s were very influential. (Britain in the Inter-War Years)

Vladimir Lenin
Russian revolutionary, and the first leader of the Soviet Union. He died after a series of strokes in 1924, allowing Stalin to rise to power. (Russia in the Inter-War Years)

Benito Mussolini
Italian dictator. Mussolini founded the Fascist Party and led Italy throughout the 1920s and 30s. (Italy in the Inter-War Years)

Leni Riefenstahl
German film-maker. Riefenstahl was employed by Hitler to make propaganda films for the Nazis in the 1930s. (Germany in the Inter-War Years)

Josef Stalin
Russian dictator. Leader of the Soviet Union from the 1920s until his death in 1953. Joined the Allied side in World War II and took part in the wartime conferences. (Russia in the Inter-War Years)

World War II

Leaving Cert > Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe > World War II

Aircraft such as these took part in the Battle of Britain.

In Third Year you studied the main events of World War II, from the Nazi invasion of Poland to the Soviet invasion of Berlin. In this section, you will re-examine those events, while also looking at other battles that took place in the war.

You will also examine how technology influenced the war, from the tanks and aircraft that were used to the computers that were developed to break codes, as well as looking at the alliances that were set up between different countries. In the next section, you'll learn how the war impacted on society.

Continue to Society during World War II

It might seem like there's more than usual to know for this section, but there are no Key Personalities and no Case Studies associated with it, so it balances out.

1939 - 1940:

Invasion of Poland, results.
Russo-Finnish War.
Phoney War.
Invasion of Denmark and Norway.
Invasion and Fall of France.
The Battle of Britain (the Blitz, the war at sea).

1941 - 1942:

Operation Barbarossa (the Battle of Stalingrad).
American entry to the war.

1943 - 1945:

Operation Husky.
Operation Overlord (D-Day).
The defeat of Germany.

Wartime Alliances:

Pacts and Treaties: Pact of Steel, Nazi-Soviet Pact, Anti-Comintern Pact, Atlantic Charter.
Conferences: Casablanca, Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam - decisions taken.

Technology of Warfare:

Tanks: German panzers, Russian T-34s.
Aircraft: RAF, Luftwaffe, radar, Mustangs, Spitires, Navigation systems, V-2 rockets.
Subs: U-boats, sonar, Enigma.
Impact of technology (computers).

Key Terms:
Blitzkrieg, Lebensraum
(click here)

Key Personalities:
Adolf Hitler
Winston Churchill

Soldiers in a trench during the war.

Higher Level (100 marks each)
2011: What did one or more of the following achieve in Britain during the period 1920 - 1945?
J.M. Keynes, those who took part in the Jarrow March, Winston Churchill.

2009: What did you learn about World War II from your study of one or more of the following:
wartime alliances, collaboration/resistance, technology of warfare?

2007: How significant was the role played by the Soviet Union in World War II?

2006: What developments took place in the technology of warfare during the period 1920 - 1945?

Ordinary Level:
2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How successful was Stalin's leadership during World War II? (40)

2012, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What did Winston Churchill contribute to British victory in World War II? (40)

2015, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on the technology of warfare. (30)

2011, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
What did Winston Churchill and/or J.M. Keynes contribute to Britain? (40)

2010, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on France during World War II (also asked in 2007), or
The Battle of Stalingrad. (30)

2010, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C
2008, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part C:
How successful was Winston Churchill as a wartime leader between 1940 and 1945? (40)

2009, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2007, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B
2006, Dictatorship and Democracy, Part B:
Write a short paragraph on Winston Churchill. (30)

Hitler in Paris after the fall of France in 1940.

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Welcome!

The best and brightest of the Renaissance are here to welcome you. The others will be along shortly.

First Minister of Northern Ireland, Peter Robinson (right) and other unionist politicians
pose with a poster of the Ulster Covenant, signed by Edward Carson.

The Ulster Solemn League and Covenant was signed 100 years ago (28th September). The Covenant was a pledge by Ulster unionists to resist "by all means which may be found necessary"attempts by the British government to introduce Home Rule to Ireland. They then set up the Ulster Volunteers, while nationalists joined the Irish Volunteers. The two men who led the unionist resistance, Edward Carson and James Craig, would be leading figures in Northern Ireland when it was created ten years later.

Recordings made by President John F. Kennedy during his presidency have been released along with a new book about them. He recorded his thoughts on the ongoing conflict in Vietnam, as well as conversations he had with other top figures. Recordings like this have been used by historians looking for new insights into events such as the Cuban missile crisis, and they form an important primary source.

You might have heard of the old lady in Spain who took it upon herself to restore a decaying 19th century fresco in her local church. She's back in the news now that the fresco has become a tourist attraction.

The trailer for Steven Spielberg's "Lincoln" has been released. The film is set to cover Abraham Lincoln's time as President of the United States, his efforts to abolish slavery, and the civil war that followed.

October 1st

Actor Richard Harris was born in Limerick
on this day in 1930.

1815:
The Congress of Vienna opens to redraw Europe's borders after the Napoleonic War.

1843:
The News of the World begins publication in London. It shut down in 2011.

1848:
German inventor Werner von Siemens founded the company which bears his name.

1908:
Ford puts the Model T car on sale in America for $825.

1928:
The Soviet Union begins its first Five Year Plan.

1938:
Nazi Germany annexes the Sudetenland.

1946:
Ex-Nazi leaders are sentenced at the Nuremberg Trials.

1960:
Nigeria gains independence from the United Kingdom.

1969:
Concorde breaks the sound barrier for the first time.

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